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Weather: The short-term state of the atmosphere at a particular place and time (hours to days) — includes temperature, rainfall, wind and humidity.

Climate: The long-term average pattern of weather in a region measured over decades.

• Example: A thunderstorm on a summer afternoon is weather; the fact that a region has hot, wet summers and mild winters each year describes its climate.

Exam tip: Use the line “weather is what you get; climate is what you expect” to remember the difference.

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• Temperature: How hot or cold the air is; affects evaporation and plant growth.
• Precipitation (rainfall): Water falling as rain, snow or hail; vital for agriculture and water supply.
• Humidity: Amount of water vapour in the air; high humidity affects comfort and evaporation.
• Air pressure: Weight of air above; differences cause winds and influence weather systems.
• Wind: Movement of air from high to low pressure; influences temperature and moisture transport.
• Cloudiness & visibility: Clouds indicate moisture and affect temperature and precipitation; visibility matters for transport.

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Human comfort: High temperature combined with high humidity reduces the body's ability to cool by evaporation of sweat, causing discomfort and heat stress.

Agriculture: Many crops require specific temperature ranges and humidity; excessive humidity can promote fungal diseases while low humidity increases evapotranspiration and water demand.

• Example: Paddy requires warm temperatures and high humidity during growth, while wheat prefers cooler, drier conditions.

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Measurement: Air pressure is measured with a barometer (in millibars or hectopascals).

Influence: Low-pressure areas cause air to rise, cool and condense into clouds and rain. High-pressure areas involve sinking air that suppresses cloud formation, often leading to clear weather.

• Weather maps use isobars (lines of equal pressure) to show pressure patterns and predict wind and storm movement.

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Winds transfer air masses with different temperatures and humidity between regions. For example:

• Sea breezes bring cooler, moist air inland during daytime, moderating coastal temperatures.
• Monsoon winds transport moisture from the Indian Ocean to the subcontinent, bringing the majority of annual rainfall.

Thus, winds are key agents in balancing global and regional heat and moisture distribution.

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• Rain gauge: Collects and measures the amount of precipitation over time — essential for measuring rainfall totals.
• Thermometer: Measures air temperature (usually in °C) — used for daily and long-term temperature records.
• Hygrometer: Measures humidity (amount of water vapour) — important for weather forecasting and agriculture.

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• Satellites: Provide large-scale images of cloud systems, storm formation and movement, enabling monitoring of cyclones and global weather patterns.
• Radar: Detects precipitation intensity and movement, allowing real-time tracking of storms and improved short-term forecasts and warnings.

These technologies increase lead time for warnings and reduce disaster impacts.

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It records temperature, humidity, rainfall, air pressure, wind speed/direction and solar radiation. Real-time data help update forecasts, provide early warnings, and support immediate decisions in agriculture, aviation and emergency services.

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Weather maps compile observational data from many stations and satellites. They show isobars (pressure), fronts (boundaries between air masses), wind patterns and precipitation areas, helping meteorologists predict storm tracks and temperature changes.

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Accurate long-term records of temperature, rainfall and other elements are essential to detect climate trends, assess variability, and identify changes such as warming or shifting rainfall patterns. They underpin climate research and policy-making.

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They collect and archive weather data, conduct research on atmospheric processes, improve forecasting models and provide advisory services for agriculture, disaster management and climate adaptation planning.

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Water evaporates from oceans, lakes and soil (evaporation and transpiration). Warm moist air rises and cools; as it cools, water vapour condenses into tiny droplets around dust particles forming clouds. When droplets coalesce and grow heavy, precipitation occurs — completing the water cycle.

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• Rain: Liquid water droplets fall when clouds saturate and droplets combine.
• Snow: Forms in cold climates where ice crystals form and fall as snowflakes.
• Hail: Strong updrafts in thunderstorms cause ice pellets to form and grow before falling.

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Orographic rainfall occurs when moist winds are forced to rise over mountains, cooling and causing rain on the windward side. Example: Western Ghats receive heavy orographic rainfall when southwest monsoon winds hit the range.

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Convectional rainfall happens when intense heating of the ground causes air to rise rapidly, cool and condense into heavy, often short-lived rain — typical in inland plains and during pre-monsoon thunderstorms in north India.

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High variability demands reservoirs, groundwater recharge and efficient water allocation systems to buffer periods of excess and scarcity. Planning must account for seasonal and interannual variations to ensure supply for agriculture, industry and households.

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The tropical wet climate has high temperatures and heavy rainfall throughout the year or with a pronounced wet season. It is typical of the western coast (Western Ghats) and northeastern states where evergreen forests thrive.

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Arid climates have very low and erratic rainfall, high evaporation and sparse vegetation. The Thar Desert in Rajasthan is arid with sand dunes, scarce water and specialised livelihoods such as pastoralism and irrigated agriculture near canal systems.

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• Temperature decreases with altitude, leading to cold conditions and snow at high elevations.
• Large variation in climate over short distances (valleys to peaks).
• Supports unique ecosystems and influences river systems.

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Coastal climates are moderated by the sea, with smaller temperature ranges and higher humidity. Inland continental areas show larger temperature extremes and often lower humidity.

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• Altitude: Higher altitudes are cooler.
• Proximity to sea: Seas moderate temperature and increase humidity.
• Mountain barriers: Cause rain shadow effects and orographic rainfall on windward sides.

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Understanding climate types guides crop selection, sowing times, irrigation planning and disaster preparedness — e.g., rice in wet regions, millets in semi-arid areas and terrace farming in mountains.

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The southwest monsoon brings about 75% of India’s annual rainfall, critical for agriculture, groundwater recharge and water supply. Main causes include differential heating of land and sea creating low pressure over India, the seasonal reversal of winds and the role of the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau in shaping wind patterns.

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The monsoon typically arrives in Kerala in early June, advancing northwards across the country and withdrawing from northwest India around September–October. The pattern varies yearly, affecting sowing schedules and water availability.

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The Himalayas block cold dry winds from Central Asia, helping to maintain low pressure over the subcontinent and assisting the uplift of moisture-laden monsoon winds which then condense and produce rain. They also influence the direction and intensity of monsoon flows.

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• Reduced agricultural yields leading to food shortages and income loss for farmers.
• Lower groundwater recharge and water scarcity for domestic and industrial use.
• Economic losses in rural economies and possible rise in food prices — social stress and migration may increase.

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• Improve water storage (check dams, recharge wells) and efficient irrigation (drip systems).
• Promote crop diversification, crop insurance and better weather forecasting and advisory services for farmers.

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Weather affects disease vectors, air quality and heat/cold-related illnesses.

• Example: Stagnant water after heavy rains can increase mosquito-borne diseases (malaria, dengue).
• Heatwaves can cause heatstroke and cardiovascular stress, especially among vulnerable groups.
• Cold snaps increase respiratory illnesses.

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Climate change alters temperature and precipitation patterns, increases the intensity and frequency of heatwaves, heavy rainfall events and some cyclones, and raises sea levels — all of which raise disaster risks like floods, droughts and coastal inundation.

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• Early warning systems and community-based disaster preparedness plans.
• Local water harvesting, watershed management and planting of appropriate tree species to reduce erosion.
• Promote climate-resilient crops, livelihood diversification and awareness campaigns.

Exam tip: Give 2–3 practical, local examples when asked on the board exam to score well.