Lesson 4: Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization: Urban Planning, Trade, Seals & Decline | World History
Module I: Dawn of Ancient Civilizations
Lesson 4: Indus Valley Civilization
Timeline: c. 2600 BCE – 1900 BCE
This lesson is systematically organized into four clearly structured sections, as detailed below:
- Chronologically Structured Study Module
- Short-Answer Type Questions
- Long-Answer Type Questions
- Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs) with Answers and Detailed Explanations
Chronologically Structured Study Module
Introduction
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, represents one of the four great ancient river valley civilizations of the world, alongside Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China. Flourishing in the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent, the Indus Valley Civilization is remarkable for its advanced urban planning, standardized architecture, sophisticated drainage systems, extensive trade networks, and distinctive material culture.
Unlike many other early civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization shows limited evidence of monumental kingship, warfare, or ostentatious religious structures. Instead, it reflects a society characterized by order, planning, civic discipline, and economic integration. Despite the absence of deciphered written records, archaeological discoveries provide valuable insights into its social, economic, and cultural life.
This lesson examines the Indus Valley Civilization chronologically, focusing on its urban features, economic and trade systems, seals and script, theories of decline, and long-term legacy, all of which are crucial for understanding the foundations of ancient civilizations in world history.
Geographical Extent and Environmental Setting
Location and Spread
The Indus Valley Civilization developed along the Indus River system and its tributaries, extending across:
- Present-day Pakistan
- North-western India
- Parts of Afghanistan
Major sites include Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Lothal, and Rakhigarhi.
Environmental Factors
- Availability of fertile alluvial soil
- Seasonal river flooding
- Access to riverine and coastal trade routes
The geographic spread of the civilization indicates a high degree of political coordination and cultural uniformity across a vast area.
Chronological Phases of the Indus Valley Civilization
Archaeologists generally divide the Indus Valley Civilization into three phases:
- Early Harappan Phase (c. 3300–2600 BCE)
- Mature Harappan Phase (c. 2600–1900 BCE)
- Late Harappan Phase (c. 1900–1300 BCE)
This lesson primarily focuses on the Mature Harappan Phase, when urban civilization reached its peak.
Urban Planning and City Layout
Planned Cities
One of the most striking features of the Indus Valley Civilization is its systematic urban planning.
Key Urban Features
- Cities laid out in grid patterns
- Streets intersecting at right angles
- Division of cities into citadel and lower town
- Uniform orientation of buildings
This level of planning suggests the presence of central authority and civic regulation, even though explicit evidence of kings or palaces is absent.
Architecture and Building Techniques
Standardized Construction
- Use of uniform baked bricks
- Standardized brick ratios across sites
- Durable construction materials
Residential Buildings
- Houses with multiple rooms
- Private wells in many homes
- Courtyards for domestic activities
The emphasis on functional, hygienic, and durable structures reflects a practical and organized society.
Advanced Drainage and Sanitation Systems
Urban Sanitation
The Indus Valley Civilization possessed one of the most advanced drainage systems of the ancient world.
Key Features
- Covered drains running along streets
- Household drains connected to main channels
- Inspection holes for cleaning
- Proper slope for water flow
Significance
- Demonstrates concern for public health
- Indicates civic planning and maintenance
- Reflects collective responsibility rather than elite luxury
No other contemporary civilization matched the Harappans in urban sanitation.
Public Structures and Civic Life
Important Public Buildings
- Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro
- Granaries at Harappa
- Dockyard at Lothal
Interpretation
- The Great Bath suggests ritual or ceremonial use
- Granaries indicate centralized storage and redistribution
- Dockyard reflects maritime trade and economic planning
These structures point toward organized civic life and economic coordination.
Economic Life and Agriculture
Agricultural Practices
- Cultivation of wheat, barley, peas, and cotton
- Use of plough agriculture
- Seasonal farming based on river cycles
Animal Domestication
- Cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats
- Limited evidence of horse domestication
Agriculture formed the economic base, supporting urban centers and population growth.
Trade Networks and Economic Integration
Internal Trade
- Exchange of goods between urban and rural areas
- Standardized weights and measures
External Trade
- Trade with Mesopotamia (referred to as Meluhha)
- Maritime trade through ports like Lothal
- Export of beads, seals, textiles, and pottery
Trade Goods
- Carnelian beads
- Shell ornaments
- Copper and bronze tools
Trade networks connected the Indus Valley Civilization to early global exchange systems.
Seals and Symbolism
Harappan Seals
- Made of steatite
- Carved with animal motifs (bull, unicorn, elephant)
- Inscribed with symbols
Functions
- Trade identification
- Ownership marks
- Administrative control
Seals provide crucial evidence of economic organization and symbolic culture.
The Indus Script
Nature of the Script
- Short inscriptions on seals and pottery
- Pictographic and symbolic signs
- Written from right to left (in most cases)
Undeciphered Status
Despite extensive research, the Indus script remains undeciphered, limiting direct understanding of political and religious life.
Historical Implication
The undeciphered script challenges historians but also highlights the importance of archaeology over textual evidence.
Social Structure and Governance
Social Organization
- Absence of grand palaces or royal tombs
- Limited evidence of sharp class divisions
- Uniform housing standards
Interpretation
This suggests a relatively egalitarian and civic-oriented society, distinct from contemporary civilizations with strong monarchies.
Religious Beliefs and Cultural Practices
Religious Evidence
- Terracotta figurines (possibly fertility goddesses)
- Animal symbolism
- Fire altars at some sites
Possible Beliefs
- Nature worship
- Proto-Shiva or yogic figures (debated)
Religion appears to have been integrated with daily life, rather than dominated by monumental temples.
Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
Chronological Framework
c. 1900 BCE onwards
The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization was gradual, not sudden.
Major Theories of Decline
- Climatic changes and drying rivers
- Shifting river courses
- Decline in trade networks
- Ecological stress and overuse of resources
Rejected Theory
- Invasion theory is largely discredited in modern scholarship
Late Harappan Phase and Transformation
Key Features
- Urban centers declined
- Population dispersed to rural areas
- Regional cultures emerged
The civilization did not disappear abruptly but transformed into post-Harappan cultures.
Legacy of the Indus Valley Civilization
Cultural Continuities
- Town planning traditions
- Craft techniques
- Agricultural practices
Historical Importance
- Earliest evidence of urbanism in South Asia
- Model of civic-centered urban life
- Contribution to world history of early civilizations
The Indus Valley Civilization left a lasting imprint on the cultural evolution of the Indian subcontinent.
Comparative Perspective
| Aspect | Indus Valley | Mesopotamia | Egypt |
|---|---|---|---|
| Urban Planning | Highly systematic | Less regular | Monumental focus |
| Writing | Undeciphered | Cuneiform | Hieroglyphics |
| Kingship | Not evident | Strong | Divine |
| Drainage | Advanced | Limited | Moderate |
Examination-Oriented Key Points
- Mature Harappan Phase marks urban peak
- Grid planning and drainage unmatched in antiquity
- Extensive internal and external trade
- Undeciphered script limits textual understanding
- Decline was gradual and multi-causal
- Civilization transformed rather than collapsed
Conclusion
The Indus Valley Civilization stands as one of the most sophisticated and enigmatic civilizations of the ancient world. Its achievements in urban planning, sanitation, trade, and civic organization demonstrate a highly advanced level of social coordination without overt signs of authoritarian rule. Although the undeciphered script limits our understanding of its ideology and governance, archaeological evidence reveals a civilization grounded in order, efficiency, and sustainability.
The Indus Valley Civilization not only forms a cornerstone of South Asian history but also enriches global understanding of how early civilizations could develop along alternative paths—prioritizing civic life over monumental power. Its legacy continues to shape interpretations of early urbanism in world history.
Short Answer Type Questions with Answers
Lesson: Indus Valley Civilization
Timeline: c. 2600 BCE – 1900 BCE
1. What is the Indus Valley Civilization also known as?
Answer:
The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, named after the site of Harappa.
2. Name the major river system associated with the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
The Indus River system and its tributaries.
3. Mention two major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
4. During which phase did the Indus Valley Civilization reach its peak?
Answer:
The Mature Harappan Phase (c. 2600–1900 BCE).
5. What was the most distinctive feature of Harappan urban planning?
Answer:
Cities were laid out in a grid pattern with streets intersecting at right angles.
6. What building material was commonly used in Indus Valley cities?
Answer:
Standardized baked bricks.
7. What was the purpose of the citadel in Harappan cities?
Answer:
The citadel housed important public buildings and served administrative and ceremonial functions.
8. Why are Harappan drainage systems considered advanced?
Answer:
They were covered, well-planned, and connected to individual houses with proper slopes and inspection points.
9. Name one important public structure found at Mohenjo-daro.
Answer:
The Great Bath.
10. What does the Great Bath suggest about Harappan society?
Answer:
It suggests the importance of ritual practices and collective civic life.
11. Which crops were cultivated by the Harappans?
Answer:
Wheat, barley, peas, and cotton.
12. Which animals were domesticated by the Harappans?
Answer:
Cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats.
13. Why was trade important to the Indus Valley Civilization?
Answer:
Trade supported urban life and compensated for limited local resources.
14. With which distant civilization did the Harappans trade?
Answer:
They traded with Mesopotamia, known as Meluhha.
15. What were Harappan seals made of?
Answer:
Harappan seals were typically made of steatite.
16. What information do Harappan seals provide to historians?
Answer:
They provide evidence of trade, administration, and symbolic representation.
17. Why is the Indus script significant?
Answer:
It indicates the presence of writing, though it remains undeciphered.
18. Why has the Indus script not been deciphered yet?
Answer:
Due to short inscriptions, lack of bilingual texts, and absence of known language links.
19. What does the uniformity of Harappan artifacts suggest?
Answer:
It suggests cultural unity and centralized planning across the civilization.
20. Describe the social structure of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
It appears relatively egalitarian, with limited evidence of rigid class hierarchy.
21. What type of religious practices are suggested by archaeological evidence?
Answer:
Nature worship, fertility cults, and animal symbolism.
22. What is one major theory explaining the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization?
Answer:
Climatic changes leading to drying rivers and reduced agricultural productivity.
23. Why is the invasion theory no longer accepted by most historians?
Answer:
Because archaeological evidence does not support widespread destruction or warfare.
24. What happened during the Late Harappan Phase?
Answer:
Urban centers declined, populations dispersed, and regional cultures emerged.
25. Why is the Indus Valley Civilization important in world history?
Answer:
It represents an early model of planned urban life, sanitation, and economic integration without visible authoritarian rule.
Long Answer Type Questions with Answers
Lesson: Indus Valley Civilization
Timeline: c. 2600 BCE – 1900 BCE
1. Discuss the geographical extent and environmental setting of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
The Indus Valley Civilization developed along the Indus River system and its tributaries, covering a vast area across present-day Pakistan, north-western India, and parts of Afghanistan. Its major sites include Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Lothal, and Rakhigarhi. The civilization flourished in fertile alluvial plains supported by seasonal river floods. Access to riverine and coastal routes facilitated internal communication and long-distance trade. The vast geographical spread indicates a high degree of cultural uniformity and administrative coordination, making it one of the largest ancient civilizations in the world.
2. Why is the Indus Valley Civilization regarded as one of the world’s earliest urban civilizations?
Answer:
The Indus Valley Civilization is regarded as an early urban civilization due to its well-planned cities, standardized architecture, advanced drainage systems, and public infrastructure. Cities followed grid patterns, used baked bricks of uniform size, and incorporated civic amenities such as granaries, baths, and dockyards. These features reflect planned urban development and collective civic organization, distinguishing it from earlier village-based societies.
3. Examine the chronological phases of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
The civilization is divided into three phases: the Early Harappan Phase (c. 3300–2600 BCE), marked by the emergence of settlements; the Mature Harappan Phase (c. 2600–1900 BCE), characterized by full urbanization and cultural uniformity; and the Late Harappan Phase (c. 1900–1300 BCE), which witnessed urban decline and regional diversification. The Mature Harappan Phase represents the peak of the civilization.
4. Analyze the urban planning features of Harappan cities.
Answer:
Harappan cities were meticulously planned with streets laid out in grid patterns intersecting at right angles. Cities were divided into a raised citadel and a lower residential town. Buildings were constructed using standardized baked bricks. Such planning suggests centralized civic authority and emphasis on order, functionality, and public welfare.
5. Discuss the significance of the drainage and sanitation system in the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
The drainage system of the Indus Valley Civilization was among the most advanced in the ancient world. Covered drains ran along streets and were connected to household outlets. Inspection holes allowed regular cleaning. This reflects a high level of concern for hygiene, public health, and civic responsibility, unmatched by contemporary civilizations.
6. Describe the major public structures of the Indus Valley Civilization and their significance.
Answer:
Important public structures include the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, granaries at Harappa, and the dockyard at Lothal. The Great Bath likely had ritual significance, granaries indicate centralized storage and redistribution, and the dockyard highlights maritime trade. These structures demonstrate organized civic life and economic planning.
7. Examine the agricultural base of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
Agriculture formed the economic foundation of the civilization. Harappans cultivated wheat, barley, peas, and cotton, making them among the earliest cotton producers. Farming relied on river flooding and plough agriculture. Agricultural surplus supported urban populations and specialized occupations.
8. Analyze the role of trade in the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
Trade was essential for sustaining urban life. Internally, goods were exchanged between cities and rural areas using standardized weights. Externally, the Harappans traded with Mesopotamia (Meluhha), Central Asia, and coastal regions. Exports included beads, seals, and textiles, while imports consisted of metals, stones, and shells.
9. Discuss the importance of standardized weights and measures in Harappan society.
Answer:
Standardized weights and measures facilitated fair trade, taxation, and economic integration across the vast Harappan region. Their uniformity indicates centralized regulation and economic sophistication, strengthening commercial networks.
10. Examine Harappan seals and their historical significance.
Answer:
Harappan seals, usually made of steatite, featured animal motifs and inscriptions. They were likely used for trade identification, ownership marking, and administrative control. Seals provide crucial evidence of economic organization, symbolism, and inter-regional trade contacts.
11. Discuss the nature and significance of the Indus script.
Answer:
The Indus script consists of short inscriptions found on seals and pottery. It is pictographic and remains undeciphered. Although its meaning is unknown, the script indicates literacy and administrative complexity. Its undeciphered nature limits understanding of Harappan political and religious institutions.
12. Analyze the social structure of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
Archaeological evidence suggests a relatively egalitarian society. The absence of palaces, royal tombs, or monumental temples indicates limited social stratification. Uniform housing standards reflect civic equality, though occupational specialization existed.
13. What does the absence of monumental architecture reveal about Harappan governance?
Answer:
The lack of palaces or royal monuments suggests that governance may have been collective or bureaucratic rather than autocratic. Authority likely rested in civic institutions rather than individual rulers, distinguishing the Indus Valley Civilization from Egypt and Mesopotamia.
14. Examine religious beliefs and practices in the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
Religious beliefs are inferred from figurines, seals, and symbols. Evidence suggests fertility worship, animal symbolism, and nature worship. Fire altars at some sites indicate ritual practices. Religion appears integrated into daily life rather than dominated by priestly elites.
15. Compare the Indus Valley Civilization with Mesopotamian civilization.
Answer:
While both were river valley civilizations, the Indus Valley emphasized urban planning, sanitation, and civic order, whereas Mesopotamia focused on monumental temples and kingship. Writing in Mesopotamia is deciphered, unlike the Indus script. Mesopotamian society was more hierarchical and militaristic.
16. Compare the Indus Valley Civilization with Ancient Egypt.
Answer:
Ancient Egypt centered on divine kingship, monumental pyramids, and religious continuity, whereas the Indus Valley lacked visible kingship and monumental tombs. Egypt relied on predictable Nile floods, while the Indus system involved multiple rivers. Both civilizations exhibited long-distance trade and agricultural surplus.
17. Examine the major theories explaining the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
Major theories include climatic changes, drying of rivers, shifting river courses, ecological stress, and decline in trade. These factors gradually undermined urban life. Modern scholarship rejects invasion theory due to lack of evidence for large-scale violence.
18. Why is the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization described as gradual rather than sudden?
Answer:
Archaeological evidence shows a slow decline marked by urban contraction, reduced trade, and population dispersal. Cities were not destroyed abruptly; instead, people migrated to rural areas, leading to cultural transformation.
19. Describe the Late Harappan Phase and its significance.
Answer:
The Late Harappan Phase witnessed the decline of urban centers and emergence of regional cultures. Although cities declined, cultural traditions such as pottery styles and agricultural practices continued, indicating continuity rather than complete collapse.
20. Evaluate the historical significance and legacy of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
The Indus Valley Civilization is historically significant for pioneering urban planning, sanitation, trade systems, and civic governance. It represents an alternative path to civilization, emphasizing collective organization over authoritarian rule. Its legacy influenced later cultural developments in South Asia and enriches global understanding of early urban societies.
MCQs with Answers and Explanations
Lesson: Indus Valley Civilization
Timeline: c. 2600 BCE – 1900 BCE
1. The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the
A. Vedic Civilization
B. Harappan Civilization
C. Chalcolithic Civilization
D. Aryan Civilization
Correct Answer: B
Explanation:
It is called the Harappan Civilization after Harappa, the first site to be excavated.
2. The Mature Harappan Phase belongs to which period?
A. c. 3300–2600 BCE
B. c. 2600–1900 BCE
C. c. 1900–1300 BCE
D. c. 1500–1000 BCE
Correct Answer: B
Explanation:
The Mature Harappan Phase marks the peak of urban development in the Indus Valley Civilization.
3. Which river system formed the core of the Indus Valley Civilization?
A. Ganga–Yamuna
B. Tigris–Euphrates
C. Nile
D. Indus and its tributaries
Correct Answer: D
Explanation:
The civilization developed primarily along the Indus River system.
4. Which of the following cities was a major port of the Indus Valley Civilization?
A. Harappa
B. Mohenjo-daro
C. Dholavira
D. Lothal
Correct Answer: D
Explanation:
Lothal had a dockyard, indicating maritime trade.
5. The most distinctive feature of Harappan town planning was
A. Circular houses
B. Random street layout
C. Grid pattern of streets
D. Hilltop settlements
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Harappan cities followed a grid pattern with streets intersecting at right angles.
6. Indus Valley houses were mainly constructed using
A. Sun-dried bricks
B. Stone blocks
C. Wood
D. Standardized baked bricks
Correct Answer: D
Explanation:
Uniform baked bricks were used across Harappan cities, showing standardization.
7. Which feature best reflects the advanced sanitation system of Harappan cities?
A. Underground wells
B. Covered street drains
C. Stone embankments
D. Fortified walls
Correct Answer: B
Explanation:
Covered drains connected to individual houses highlight civic planning and hygiene.
8. The Great Bath is located at
A. Harappa
B. Dholavira
C. Mohenjo-daro
D. Kalibangan
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is a significant public structure, possibly used for ritual purposes.
9. What does the presence of granaries suggest about Harappan society?
A. Military storage
B. Religious dominance
C. Centralized economic planning
D. Private ownership of surplus
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Granaries indicate centralized storage and redistribution of food grains.
10. Which crop was first cultivated extensively by the Harappans?
A. Rice
B. Cotton
C. Sugarcane
D. Tea
Correct Answer: B
Explanation:
The Harappans were among the earliest cultivators of cotton.
11. Which animals were commonly domesticated by the Harappans?
A. Horse and camel
B. Elephant and horse
C. Cattle, sheep, and goats
D. Only sheep
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Cattle, sheep, goats, and buffaloes were commonly domesticated.
12. The Harappans used standardized weights mainly for
A. Religious rituals
B. Military purposes
C. Trade and commerce
D. Construction work
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Uniform weights facilitated regulated trade across the civilization.
13. Indus Valley seals were primarily made of
A. Terracotta
B. Bronze
C. Steatite
D. Ivory
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Steatite seals often carried animal motifs and inscriptions.
14. Which animal is most frequently depicted on Harappan seals?
A. Horse
B. Unicorn
C. Lion
D. Tiger
Correct Answer: B
Explanation:
The so-called “unicorn” motif appears most frequently on seals.
15. The Indus script remains undeciphered mainly because
A. It was written on palm leaves
B. It contains very long texts
C. Bilingual inscriptions are absent
D. It used an alphabet
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
The absence of bilingual inscriptions limits decipherment.
16. The undeciphered Indus script suggests that
A. The civilization was illiterate
B. Writing was symbolic or administrative
C. Religion was absent
D. Kings ruled absolutely
Correct Answer: B
Explanation:
The script indicates administrative or symbolic communication, though its meaning is unknown.
17. Which civilization traded with the Indus Valley, referring to it as “Meluhha”?
A. Egyptian
B. Chinese
C. Mesopotamian
D. Persian
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Mesopotamian records mention trade with Meluhha, identified with the Indus region.
18. Which material was commonly imported by the Harappans?
A. Wheat
B. Timber and metals
C. Cotton
D. Pottery
Correct Answer: B
Explanation:
The region lacked metals and timber, making imports essential.
19. Which feature distinguishes the Indus Valley Civilization from Egypt and Mesopotamia?
A. Presence of writing
B. River-based economy
C. Absence of monumental kingship
D. Use of agriculture
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Unlike Egypt and Mesopotamia, no clear evidence of kings or palaces is found.
20. The social structure of the Indus Valley Civilization appears to have been
A. Highly stratified
B. Caste-based
C. Militaristic
D. Relatively egalitarian
Correct Answer: D
Explanation:
Uniform housing and lack of palaces suggest limited social hierarchy.
21. Religious beliefs in the Indus Valley Civilization are known mainly through
A. Literary texts
B. Temple inscriptions
C. Archaeological evidence
D. Foreign accounts
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Seals, figurines, and structures provide indirect evidence of religious practices.
22. Which of the following religious elements is suggested by archaeological finds?
A. Monotheism
B. Nature and fertility worship
C. Emperor worship
D. Idol destruction
Correct Answer: B
Explanation:
Figurines and animal symbols suggest fertility and nature worship.
23. The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization was mainly due to
A. Sudden invasion
B. Climatic and environmental changes
C. Religious conflicts
D. Internal rebellions
Correct Answer: B
Explanation:
Modern scholars emphasize climatic changes, river shifts, and ecological stress.
24. Which theory explaining the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization is now largely rejected?
A. Climatic change theory
B. Ecological stress theory
C. Invasion theory
D. Trade decline theory
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Archaeological evidence does not support large-scale invasion.
25. What happened during the Late Harappan Phase?
A. Expansion of cities
B. Rise of empires
C. Decline of urban centers
D. Introduction of iron
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Urban centers declined and populations dispersed into rural areas.
26. The Indus Valley Civilization is significant in world history because it
A. Developed democracy
B. Created the earliest empire
C. Demonstrated advanced urban civic planning
D. Invented alphabetic writing
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Its urban planning and sanitation were unparalleled in the ancient world.
27. Which Harappan site is known for water management and reservoirs?
A. Harappa
B. Mohenjo-daro
C. Dholavira
D. Lothal
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Dholavira had sophisticated reservoirs and water conservation systems.
28. The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization was
A. Sudden and violent
B. Gradual and multi-causal
C. Due to volcanic eruption
D. Caused by epidemic
Correct Answer: B
Explanation:
Archaeology indicates a slow transformation rather than abrupt collapse.
29. Which statement best describes Harappan governance?
A. Divine monarchy
B. Military rule
C. Bureaucratic and civic-oriented
D. Tribal leadership
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Evidence suggests collective civic administration rather than autocratic rule.
30. In comparative history, the Indus Valley Civilization represents
A. A militaristic civilization
B. A temple-centered civilization
C. An urban civilization with civic emphasis
D. A nomadic culture
Correct Answer: C
Explanation:
Its focus on sanitation, planning, and civic order distinguishes it from other ancient civilizations.