Beginnings of Indian Civilization – Study module with Revision Notes
This Content Bank collects the major points for quick revision: timeline, major sites, town planning and architecture, economy and craft, social life, writing and seals, decline and legacy.
Overview — Origins of Indian Civilization (Indus Valley)
The Indus Valley Civilization (also known as the Harappan Civilization) is one of the earliest urban societies in the Indian subcontinent. It developed around the river systems of present-day Pakistan and northwest India. The civilization flourished between approximately 3300 BCE and 1300 BCE with a mature phase (often called the Harappan phase) from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE.
NCERT emphasises that this early civilization grew from earlier farming communities. Over time small villages near rivers and fertile plains developed into large, well-planned towns. Archaeologists excavated these towns and found evidence of planned streets, drainage systems, public buildings, and large granaries — all pointing to a high level of organisation and shared knowledge.
How to approach this chapter for exams
- Focus on cause and effect: how environment and resources shaped settlements.
- Learn specific features (town planning, seals, pottery) and what they tell us about everyday life.
- Link artefacts to functions: e.g., seals — trade and administration; weights — standardisation in trade; granaries — food storage and surplus.
Major Harappan Sites
Many sites are grouped as urban centres and smaller rural settlements. NCERT often highlights the main urban centres and their features.
Principal urban sites
- Harappa — Early excavations and gives name to the culture; evidence of planned streets and large mounds of ruins.
- Mohenjo-daro — Well-known for the Great Bath, wide streets, and complex water management.
- Dholavira — Notable for its unique water reservoirs and inscriptions; located in present-day Gujarat.
- Rakhigarhi, Lothal, Kalibangan — Each site contributes unique evidence: trade links (Lothal's dock), burnt bricks and terracotta, and regional craft specialisations.
Remember: map practice is essential. Be able to mark at least three major Harappan sites and mention one special feature of each.
Town Planning and Architecture
One of the most striking aspects of the Indus towns is the careful planning. Streets were laid out in grids, houses faced streets and many had private wells and bathrooms. Cities had a division between higher and lower areas — often referred to as the Citadel (higher, possibly public or religious buildings) and the Lower Town (residential and workshops).
Drainage systems were advanced: covered drains ran alongside streets, which suggests attention to public health and community management. Buildings were often made of baked bricks of standard size, indicating craft standardisation and skilled labour.
Key features to remember
- Grid-pattern streets and organised blocks.
- Standardised fired brick sizes and construction techniques.
- Advanced drainage and sanitation systems.
- Public structures: Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro), granaries, assembly halls.
Economy, Trade and Crafts
The Harappan economy was diverse: agriculture, animal husbandry, craft production and trade played important roles. Crops included wheat, barley, peas, and possibly rice in some regions. Evidence of irrigation and storage points to an economy that produced surplus food.
Craft production included pottery, bead-making, metalwork (copper, bronze), and textile production. Standardised weights and measures, along with seals, show an organised system for trade and exchange. The Harappans traded widely: finds suggest contacts with Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) and regions within the subcontinent. Lothal, with its dock-like structure, is often cited as evidence for maritime trade.
Why trade mattered
Trade connected towns to raw materials (such as metals) and markets. It also helped spread ideas and techniques. For CBSE exams, be prepared to explain how trade and craft specialisation reflect economic organisation and inter-regional connections.
Decline and Legacy
The decline of the Harappan cities around 1900 BCE is attributed to a combination of factors rather than a single cause. These include environmental changes (e.g., river shifts, droughts), decline in trade, and regionalisation of settlements. Some sites show evidence of reduced planning and reuse of older structures.
Legacy: The Harappan civilisation contributed to later cultural developments in the subcontinent. Certain crafts, agricultural practices and settlement patterns influenced later societies. The evidence also reminds us that cities can change or shrink when environmental and economic conditions alter.
Quick Revision Notes (Bullet Points)
- Timeframe: c. 3300 – 1300 BCE; Mature Harappan c. 2600 – 1900 BCE.
- Location: Indus basin, parts of present-day Pakistan and northwest India.
- Key Sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi.
- Town Planning: Grid pattern, citadel and lower town, drainage systems, standard bricks.
- Economy: Agriculture (wheat, barley), craft (beads, pottery), trade (regionally and with Mesopotamia), standard weights.
- Writing: Script undeciphered; found on seals and pottery.
- Religion & Society: Evidence of ritual objects, terracotta figurines, no direct royal inscriptions.
- Decline: Likely multi-causal: environmental change, river changes, breakdown in trade.
How to use these notes
Read these notes to build a clear narrative: start with how towns developed from farming villages, describe town planning and public buildings, explain economy and trade, and end with reasons for decline and what the Harappan legacy taught historians. Practice map work and short-answer questions using the bullet points above.
Practice Prompts (For Classwork & Exams)
- Explain three features of Harappan town planning with examples.
- Describe economic activities in the Indus Valley and discuss why trade was important.
- List three reasons historians think the Harappan cities declined.
- Why is the Harappan script important, and why is its undeciphered status significant for historians?
Write short answers (30-50 words) for each, and one longer answer (100-150 words) synthesising the main characteristics of Harappan civilisation.
Social Life, Religion and Writing
Harappan society left limited direct evidence about rulers or social hierarchy. However, variation in house sizes and the presence of specialised workshops suggest social differentiation. Items found in homes (pottery, tools) indicate daily routines and household industries.
Religion: Terracotta figures and seals show images of animals, Mother Goddesses and possibly ritual objects. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro may have had a ritual function. The precise beliefs remain uncertain, but artefacts point to communal and ritual activities.
Writing: The Harappan script is found on seals and pottery. It remains undeciphered; so for exams, mention the script’s undeciphered status and that this limits what we can say about Harappan political life and administration with absolute certainty.