Answer: During floods, rivers slow down and deposit carried sediments (silt, sand and clay) on the floodplain — this is deposition. Repeated deposition over centuries builds thick layers of alluvium, forming flat and fertile plains like the Indo-Gangetic Plain which supports intensive agriculture.

Answer: This is the rain-shadow effect. Moist air rises on the windward side, cools and causes rainfall. When air descends on the leeward side, it is dry and warm, causing lower rainfall. Example: Western Ghats — heavy rain on western slopes and drier conditions on the Deccan Plateau (leeward side).

Answer: The landform is a volcanic plateau (e.g., parts of the Deccan Plateau). It formed from repeated lava flows that cooled and built up layers. Black (regur) soil on such plateaus is ideal for cotton cultivation.

Answer: Wind erosion and deposition (aeolian processes) are responsible. Wind picks up and transports sand grains and deposits them in sheltered areas to form dunes, shaping the desert landscape and causing shifting sand formations.

Answer: Terraces create flat steps that slow down surface runoff, reducing the speed of flowing water and allowing more water to soak into the soil. This prevents soil being washed away and improves moisture for crops, increasing yields and providing more stable livelihoods.

Answer: Mountains capture precipitation as snow and glaciers. During warmer seasons, melting snow and glaciers release water steadily into streams that form rivers. These mountain rivers supply water for irrigation, drinking, and power generation downstream, supporting agriculture and settlements.

Answer: Activities increasing landslides: deforestation and unplanned construction on steep slopes. Preventive measures: reforestation to stabilise soil and engineered solutions like retaining walls and proper drainage to reduce water saturation.

Answer: Harsh climate and isolation lead communities to adapt: clothing uses warm woollen garments for insulation; festivals often celebrate seasonal changes or harvests linked to mountain agriculture. Architecture like sloping roofs prevents snow accumulation.

Answer: Positive: deposition of fertile silt renews soils. Negative: destruction of infrastructure, loss of life and spread of diseases. Balanced measure: Implement controlled floodplains with designated areas for inundation, while building stronger bridges and flood-resilient housing in safer zones.

Answer: Irrigation provides reliable water allowing multiple crops per year, increases yields and income. Environmental issue: Overuse of groundwater can cause depletion and salinisation of soils if irrigation is poorly managed.

Answer: Plains have flat land for construction, good agricultural surplus to support markets and easier transport. Planning challenge: Managing urban sprawl and protecting fertile agricultural land from being converted into built-up areas.

Answer: Establish inter-state river basin authorities for shared planning and water allocation; adopt water-saving techniques (drip irrigation) and data-sharing for transparent decision-making.

Answer: Benefits: jobs, local income and raw materials for industry. Costs: land degradation, water pollution and deforestation. Sustainable approach: enforce rehabilitation of mined land, proper waste disposal and reforestation to restore ecosystems.

Answer: Millets and pulses are drought-resistant and need less fertile soils. Sustainable improvements: adopt soil conservation (contour ploughing), rainwater harvesting and crop rotation to maintain soil fertility.

Answer: Escarpments form from erosion or faulting where harder rocks resist erosion, leaving steep cliffs. Transport solution: build switchback roads and tunnels to safely connect plateau towns with lowlands, minimising slope damage.

Answer: Solutions include rainwater harvesting tanks and johads, construction of ponds and check dams, and use of drip irrigation and water-efficient crop choices to conserve scarce water.

Answer: Pastoralism suits deserts because animals like camels can travel long distances and feed on sparse vegetation. Modern challenge: reduced grazing land due to land-use changes and restrictions on mobility affecting traditional routes.

Answer: Natural measures: preserving mangroves and restoring dunes which absorb wave energy. Human-made measure: constructing sea walls or groynes where appropriate, combined with managed retreat and sustainable coastal planning.

Answer: Advantages: rich marine resources and tourism income. Challenges: high cost of importing goods, limited freshwater resources and vulnerability to sea-level rise and storms.

Answer: Impacts: contaminated water affects human health, reduces fish catch and pollutes soils used for irrigation. Measures: enforce wastewater treatment for industries and community-based river-cleaning and monitoring programmes with penalties for violations.