Discovery

• The civilisation was discovered in the 1920s during excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
• Archaeologists like Daya Ram Sahni and R.D. Banerjee played a key role.

Historical Importance

• It proved that Indian history dates back to a highly developed urban civilisation.
• It highlighted advanced town planning, economy, and craftsmanship.

• The Harappan script remains undeciphered.
• Archaeologists depend on material remains like buildings, tools, seals, and bones.
• Scientific methods such as carbon dating help establish chronology.

• Undeciphered script restricts direct historical knowledge.
• No clear evidence of political institutions.
• Interpretations depend on material evidence, which can be incomplete.

• Cities divided into citadel and lower town.
• Grid pattern streets intersecting at right angles.
• Standardised baked bricks.
• Advanced drainage and sanitation systems.

• Covered drains connected to houses.
• Regular cleaning and inspection points.
• Shows concern for hygiene and public health.

• Raised platform for protection and authority.
• Housed important public and ritual buildings.
• Symbol of administrative control.

• Agriculture was the primary occupation.
• Crops included wheat, barley, and pulses.
• Animal domestication supplemented food supply.
• Fishing and hunting supported diet.

• Indicate surplus agricultural production.
• Reflect planned storage and distribution.
• Suggest central authority and resource management.

• Used for food and dairy.
• Supported agriculture and transport.
• Provided raw materials like leather and wool.

• Bead-making using semi-precious stones.
• Pottery and terracotta figurines.
• Metal tools and ornaments.
• Shell and ivory work.

• Internal trade linked various settlements.
• External trade with regions like Mesopotamia.
• Standard weights and seals ensured regulation.

• Used to mark ownership and goods.
• Indicate organised trade.
• Provide clues about religious beliefs.

• Uniform housing suggests limited inequality.
• Variation in house sizes shows some social differences.
• No clear evidence of kings or palaces.

• Terracotta figurines suggest fertility worship.
• Pashupati seal linked with proto-Shiva.
• Fire altars indicate ritual practices.

• Careful burial practices suggest belief in afterlife.
• Grave goods indicate social customs.

• Climate change and drought.
• Shifting river courses.
• Decline in trade.
• Overuse of natural resources.

• Evidence shows slow abandonment of cities.
• No signs of large-scale destruction.
• Urban centres turned into rural settlements.

• Reduced agricultural productivity.
• Floods and droughts disrupted life.
• Weakening of urban economy.

• Study of material remains.
• Use of scientific dating methods.
• Comparative analysis of sites.

• New discoveries add evidence.
• Improved scientific techniques.
• Re-evaluation of earlier conclusions.

• Efficient administration.
• Hygiene and sanitation.
• Planned civic life.

• Agriculture.
• Craft production.
• Trade networks.

• Standardised bricks.
• Metal tools.
• Advanced craftsmanship.

• Dependence on rivers.
• Impact of climate change.

• One of the earliest urban cultures.
• Advanced social and economic systems.
• Foundation of later Indian history.