Types of landforms

• Plains: Flat areas with deep soils—ideal for agriculture, settlements and infrastructure.
• Plateaus: Elevated flat regions—often mineral-rich, supporting mining and certain types of farming.
• Mountains: High relief regions—sources of rivers, forestry, pastures and tourism.
• Coastal areas: Shorelines—support fisheries, ports, trade and tourism.

Support to human activity

• Plains enable large-scale cultivation and dense populations.
• Plateaus provide minerals and grazing lands.
• Mountains supply water and hydroelectric potential; also offer tourism opportunities.
• Coasts enable marine economy and international trade.

Definition

Land use is the human utilisation of land for agriculture, housing, industry, forestry, and other purposes.

Reasons for change

• Urbanisation: Growing cities convert agricultural land to built-up areas.
• Industrialisation: Factories and infrastructure require land.
• Agricultural intensification: Changing cropping patterns and irrigation alter land use.
• Policy and market forces: Land value and government policies influence conversion.

Consequences

• Loss of fertile land, habitat fragmentation, increased runoff and higher flood risk.

Meaning

Land degradation is the deterioration in the quality of land, reducing its productivity and ecological functions.

Principal causes

• Deforestation and overgrazing leading to erosion.
• Unsustainable farming practices and overuse of chemical fertilisers.
• Mining and unplanned urban expansion.
• Salinisation due to improper irrigation.

Control measures

• Afforestation and soil conservation techniques (contour bunding, terracing).
• Sustainable agricultural practices—crop rotation, organic manure.
• Strict land use planning and rehabilitation of mined areas.

Concept

Land reclamation is the process of converting unusable or degraded land into productive land through engineering and biological methods.

Examples

• Draining marshes and stabilising soil for agriculture.
• Reclaiming mined land by backfilling, topsoil replacement and replanting native vegetation.

Role of policies

Government policies determine zoning, protection of farmland, incentives for conservation and development priorities.

Examples

• Zoning laws preventing conversion of prime agricultural land.
• Incentives for urban redevelopment (brownfield reclamation) to reduce sprawl.
• Policies supporting agroforestry and watershed projects to maintain land productivity.

Importance

• Supports fisheries, coastal agriculture, ports, tourism and biodiversity (mangroves, coral reefs).
• Acts as a buffer against storms and sea surges.

Prevention of degradation

• Protect mangroves and wetlands; regulate coastal development.
• Implement sustainable fishing practices and control pollution from land-based sources.
• Use integrated coastal zone management and enforce setback lines for construction.

Process

Soil forms from the weathering of parent rock and accumulation of organic matter over long periods.

Factors

• Parent rock: Mineral composition influences soil texture and fertility.
• Climate: Temperature and rainfall control weathering rates and organic decomposition.
• Organisms: Plants, animals and microbes add organic matter and mix soil.
• Relief (topography): Slope affects drainage and erosion.
• Time: Longer periods lead to deeper and more developed soils.

Alluvial soil

• Found in river plains; rich in nutrients and fine particles.
• Highly fertile—suitable for rice, wheat, sugarcane and other crops.

Black soil

• Also called regur; retains moisture and rich in clay.
• Ideal for cotton and certain cereals; supports dry farming due to moisture retention.

Definition

Soil erosion is the removal of topsoil by agents like water and wind, reducing soil fertility.

Types

• Water erosion: Sheet, rill and gully erosion caused by runoff.
• Wind erosion: Common in arid areas with little vegetation.

Control methods

• Vegetative cover: planting grasses and trees.
• Structural measures: contour bunding, terraces and check dams.
• Land management: crop rotation, reduced tillage and maintaining organic matter.

Effective practices

• Terracing to create level fields and reduce runoff speed.
• Contour ploughing and bunding to slow water flow.
• Afforestation of slopes to stabilise soil with roots.
• Use of cover crops and maintaining organic matter.

Benefits

These measures reduce landslides, maintain soil fertility and sustain agriculture in hills.

Salinisation

Salinisation is the build-up of soluble salts in soil, often from poor irrigation practices and inadequate drainage.

Impact

• Reduces seed germination and plant growth; lowers yields.
• May render land unfit for cultivation if severe.

Prevention

• Improve drainage, use proper irrigation scheduling and adopt salt-tolerant crops.
• Leaching salts below root zone using good quality water and allowing natural drainage.

Contributions

• Uses organic manure and compost to enhance soil organic matter and microbial activity.
• Reduces chemical load—prevents soil acidification and preserves beneficial organisms.

Examples

• Compost application, green manuring with legumes and crop rotations that improve nutrient cycling.

Distribution

• Oceans contain ~97% of Earth's water (saline).
• Glaciers and polar ice caps hold ~2% (mostly inaccessible).
• Less than 1% is accessible freshwater in rivers, lakes and groundwater.

Reasons for scarcity

• Uneven spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall.
• Pollution of freshwater sources and over-extraction of groundwater.
• Population growth and increased per-capita use.

Importance

• Major source for drinking water and irrigation; provides base flow to rivers.

Causes of depletion

• Excessive well and bore extraction for farming and industry.
• Reduced recharge due to urbanisation and sealed surfaces.

Recharge methods

• Rainwater harvesting, percolation pits and check dams to increase infiltration.
• Protecting recharge zones by maintaining vegetation and permeable surfaces.

Concept

Rainwater harvesting captures runoff and stores it for later use or for groundwater recharge.

Components

• Catchment area (roof or ground surface).
• Conveyance system (gutters and pipes).
• Storage (tanks or ponds) and recharge structures (percolation wells, recharge pits).

Benefits

Reduced dependence on wells, improved water availability and recharged aquifers.

Watershed management

Integrated management of land and water in a catchment area to conserve soil, water and biodiversity.

Benefits

• Reduces soil erosion and increases groundwater recharge.
• Improves water availability for irrigation and stabilises river flows.
• Enhances vegetative cover and habitat quality, supporting biodiversity.

Major sources

• Untreated sewage and domestic waste.
• Industrial effluents and agricultural runoff containing chemicals.
• Solid waste dumping in water bodies.

Strategies to control

• Wastewater treatment plants and strict discharge standards.
• Promote organic farming and managed use of fertilisers.
• Community awareness and stringent monitoring of industries.

Urban planning measures

• Implement rainwater harvesting in buildings and public spaces.
• Design permeable pavements and green spaces to enhance infiltration.
• Upgrade sewage treatment and recycle water for non-potable uses.
• Encourage water-saving fixtures and metering to reduce demand.

Major types

• Tropical evergreen forests — heavy rainfall, high temperature.
• Tropical deciduous forests — seasonal rainfall, moderate climate.
• Thorn forests & scrub — low rainfall and arid conditions.
• Montane forests — altitude-driven climate zones.
• Mangroves — saline coastal conditions with tidal influence.

Climatic controls

Rainfall, temperature and seasonality largely determine vegetation type and productivity.

Ecological importance

• Regulate climate by carbon sequestration and water cycles.
• Prevent soil erosion and protect watersheds.
• Provide habitat for biodiversity.

Economic importance

• Supply timber, fuelwood, medicines and non-timber products like honey and gums.
• Support livelihoods via forest-based industries and eco-tourism.

Threats

• Deforestation for agriculture and urban expansion.
• Logging, illegal timber trade and forest fires.
• Invasive species and climate change impacts.

Conservation measures

• Protected areas, sustainable logging practices and community forest management.
• Afforestation and restoration using native species.
• Strict enforcement of laws and promotion of alternative livelihoods.

What are mangroves?

Mangroves are coastal trees adapted to saline and waterlogged conditions, forming dense forests along sheltered coastlines.

Roles

• Act as buffers—reduce wave energy and protect coasts from erosion and storms.
• Provide nursery habitats for many fish and crustaceans, supporting fisheries.
• Trap sediments and pollutants, improving water quality.

Agroforestry concept

Agroforestry integrates trees with crops and/or livestock on the same land to create diversified and sustainable land use systems.

Benefits

• Improves soil fertility through leaf litter and nitrogen-fixing species.
• Provides additional income from timber and non-timber products.
• Reduces pressure on natural forests by meeting local wood needs.

Community plan outline

• Assessment of degradation causes and mapping critical zones.
• Nursery establishment of native saplings and participatory planting drives.
• Controlled grazing, fire prevention and livelihood options like NTFP (non-timber forest products).
• Monitoring by local committees and partnerships with government agencies for technical support.

Definition

Biodiversity is the variety of life forms—genes, species and ecosystems—within a region.

Importance

• Higher biodiversity ensures functional redundancy—ecosystems can better withstand disturbances.
• Provides ecosystem services like pollination, nutrient cycling and climate regulation.

Major threats

• Habitat loss from agriculture, urbanisation and infrastructure.
• Poaching driven by demand for wildlife products and poverty.
• Pollution and climate change altering habitats and food webs.

Socio-economic reasons

• Income needs leading to encroachment and illegal hunting.
• Market demand (traditional medicines, luxury goods) fueling poaching.
• Policy gaps and lack of alternatives for local communities.

Wildlife corridors

Corridors are stretches of habitat that connect isolated patches, allowing animal movement for breeding, foraging and seasonal migration.

Importance

• Reduce inbreeding by connecting populations.
• Allow species to move in response to climate change and resource shortages.
• Minimise human-wildlife conflicts by providing natural routes.

Role

• Provide safe havens free from hunting and major disturbances.
• Protect critical habitats and species, enabling population recovery.

Limitations

• Often too small or isolated to support wide-ranging species.
• Human pressures at boundaries (encroachment, resource extraction).
• Management challenges and funding constraints.

Design principles

• Limit visitor numbers and regulate activities to reduce disturbance.
• Involve local communities in management and share revenues as livelihoods.
• Use tourism to fund conservation, education and habitat restoration.

Integrated anti-poaching plan

• Strengthen patrolling and surveillance (camera traps, ranger training).
• Community engagement: alternative livelihoods, awareness and reporting incentives.
• Legal enforcement: fast-track prosecution and stricter penalties.
• Demand reduction: public campaigns to reduce market demand for illegal wildlife products.
• Regional cooperation to dismantle trafficking networks.