Overview

This chapter traces the emergence of a national movement in India from the late nineteenth century to independence in 1947. Initially led by an educated elite, nationalism gradually spread to towns, villages and different sections of society. The Indian National Congress (founded in 1885) became a platform for political debate and action. Over time, the movement moved from petitions and moderate protests to mass mobilisations under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership. Key campaigns included the Swadeshi movement (early 1900s), Non-Cooperation (1920–22), Civil Disobedience (1930–34) and the Quit India movement (1942). The chapter highlights how ideas, methods, and people's participation together shaped the long struggle for freedom.

1. Origins of Indian Nationalism

Economic and Social Causes

British colonial rule brought significant economic and social changes which fed nationalist sentiment:

• Economic distress: Deindustrialisation of traditional crafts, ruin of some artisan classes and famines led to resentment.
• Western education: English education created a class of Indians who read liberal and nationalist ideas and demanded rights.
• Print culture: Newspapers and journals disseminated ideas quickly and created a public sphere for debate.

Political Causes

• Racial discrimination: Indians were excluded from higher services and decision-making posts.
• Administrative grievances: High taxes, land settlement systems and lack of local representation.

Early Organisations and Voices

Before Congress, several associations and reform groups raised local grievances. The Indian Association (1876) and other regional bodies mobilised opinion, setting the stage for a pan-Indian organisation.

2. Formation and Role of the Indian National Congress (INC)

Founded in 1885 by a group of English-educated Indians and supported initially by some British liberal officials, the INC provided a forum for discussing political grievances and seeking reforms from the colonial state.

Moderates vs Extremists

The early INC included:

• Moderates (1885–1905): Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale believed in petitions, moderate reforms and working within constitutional methods.
• Extremists (1905–12): Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai demanded more radical agitation, public mobilization and assertive nationalism.

Swadeshi and Boycott (1905–08)

The partition of Bengal (1905) sparked mass protest, especially in Bengal, and led to a nationwide Swadeshi and Boycott movement—promoting local goods and rejecting British products. It marked a shift from elite protest to mass participation.

3. Gandhi and the Era of Mass Movements

Mahatma Gandhi’s return to India (1915) transformed the movement. He introduced methods of nonviolent resistance (Satyagraha) that appealed to broad sections of society.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22)

• Trigger: The Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and the Khilafat issue.
• Methods: Boycott of government institutions, schools, courts; resignation from services; wearing khadi; and peaceful protests.
• Outcome: Wide participation but movement was suspended after the Chauri Chaura incident (1922) where violence led Gandhi to call it off.

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34)

• Trigger: Salt March (Dandi March) in 1930 symbolised defiance against salt laws.
• Methods: Non-payment of taxes, refusal to obey unjust laws, picketing liquor shops and nationalisation of symbolic slogans and modes of protest.
• Outcome: Mass arrests, but it expanded the movement into rural India and brought new social groups into politics.

Quit India Movement (1942)

• Trigger: British refusal to promise immediate independence and wartime tensions.
• Call: The INC under Gandhi and the leadership demanded immediate British withdrawal—"Quit India".
• Repression: The British responded with mass arrests, banning the movement, and severe repression. Despite this, underground activities and protests continued.

4. Role of Different Social Groups

Peasants

Peasant movements surfaced in many regions (e.g., Indigo revolt earlier, later tenants' movements), driven by land revenue burdens and exploitative practices. Though not always formally linked to the INC, peasant unrest influenced and was influenced by nationalist politics.

Workers

Industrial workers organised strikes and unions, particularly in Bombay and Bengal, demanding better wages and working conditions; these movements intersected with political mobilisation.

Women

Women participated actively—from street protests and picketing to leadership roles. Gandhi mobilised women on a large scale during Civil Disobedience and Quit India movements.

Students and Youth

Students played a catalytic role in protests, boycotts, and in spreading nationalist literature and ideas across university towns.

5. Methods, Symbols and Strategies of the Movement

• Non-violence (Ahimsa) & Satyagraha: Moral force and civil resistance became the defining methods under Gandhi.
• Boycott & Swadeshi: Rejecting British goods and institutions to build self-reliance and economic resistance.
• Mass mobilisation: Rallies, hartals, strikes, and picketing were common methods of protest.
• Print & Symbols: Newspapers, slogans, khadi, the tricolour and symbols like the spinning wheel united people culturally and politically.

6. Brief Timeline (Key Events)

• 1885: Formation of Indian National Congress
• 1905: Partition of Bengal — Swadeshi Movement
• 1919: Jallianwala Bagh massacre; Rowlatt Acts
• 1920–22: Non-Cooperation Movement
• 1930–34: Civil Disobedience Movement (Salt Satyagraha)
• 1942: Quit India Movement
• 1947: India gains independence

7. Outcomes and Legacy

The national movement’s outcomes were both political and social:

• Political: The INC emerged as the leading political organisation; the demand for complete independence became central. The movement weakened British moral authority and eventually led to negotiations for transfer of power.
• Social: Nationalism created new identities and solidarities across regions, religions and languages though challenges of communalism and regional differences remained.
• Institutional: Growth of political organisations, unions and associations that later shaped post-independence politics.

8. Quick Revision — What to Remember

9. Practice Questions (Short)

1. Explain briefly the causes of the rise of nationalism in India.
2. How did the Swadeshi movement start and what were its aims?
3. What was the significance of the Salt March?
4. List two ways in which women contributed to the national movement.
5. Why did Gandhi call off the Non-Cooperation movement in 1922?

10. Further Reading & Sources

Read the NCERT textbook chapter carefully. For deeper background consult short biographies of key leaders, contemporary newspapers and selected secondary readings on British rule, peasant movements and the role of print.