The First World War (1914–1918) transformed India’s political and economic situation and prepared the ground for the rise of nationalism.

Economic Impact

• Heavy war expenditure: The British increased taxes, customs duties and war loans to finance the war.
• Sharp price rise: Prices of essential commodities shot up, reducing the real income of common people.
• Shortages and hardships: Scarcity of food and other items created widespread suffering in both rural and urban areas.

Social & Demographic Impact

• Forced recruitment: In many villages, young men were forcibly recruited into the army, causing resentment.
• Influenza epidemic: The spread of disease during and after the war led to heavy loss of life and further misery.

Political Consequences

• Indians expected political concessions for their sacrifices but got repressive laws instead.
• This disappointment made people question the legitimacy of British rule.

Thus, war-related hardships and repressive policies united different sections of society in anger against colonial rule and paved the way for Gandhiji’s mass movements.

Gandhiji introduced the idea of Satyagraha as a new method of struggle based on truth and non-violence.

Basic Principles of Satyagraha

• Truth (Satya): The struggle must be based on truth and moral strength, not hatred.
• Non-violence (Ahimsa): No physical force should be used against the opponent.
• Appeal to conscience: The aim is to persuade the oppressor to realise his mistake.
• Self-suffering: The satyagrahi willingly accepts suffering instead of inflicting it on others.

Difference from Traditional Struggles

• Traditional struggles often used violence, revenge and hatred; Satyagraha rejected all of these.
• Its aim was not to destroy the enemy but to convert him and create a win–win situation based on justice.
• It involved mass participation but insisted on strict discipline and moral control.

Through Satyagraha, Gandhiji transformed political struggle into a moral and spiritual campaign, making it suitable for a large, diverse population like India.

Gandhiji first tested Satyagraha in local struggles before launching all-India movements.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

• Indigo cultivators in Champaran, Bihar, were forced to grow indigo under oppressive tinkathia system.
• Gandhiji organised protests and pressed for inquiry into their conditions.
• The planters had to agree to reduce their demands, bringing relief to peasants.

Kheda Satyagraha (1917–18)

• In Kheda, Gujarat, crop failure had affected peasants, but the government insisted on full revenue.
• Gandhiji supported peasants’ demand for revenue remission.
• Eventually, revenue collection was suspended in many areas.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

• Textile mill workers demanded better wages.
• Gandhiji used fasting and negotiations to pressurise mill owners.
• A compromise was reached and workers got a wage increase.

These campaigns gave Gandhi experience in organising different social groups, negotiating with authorities and applying Satyagraha in real conditions, preparing him for national leadership.

Rowlatt Act (1919)

• Allowed the government to detain suspects without trial for up to two years.
• Trials were held in camera (in secret) and without jury.
• It curtailed basic civil liberties and was passed despite opposition by Indian members of the Legislative Council.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

• On 13 April 1919, people gathered peacefully in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, to protest against the Act.
• General Dyer blocked the exits and ordered firing on the unarmed crowd.
• Hundreds were killed and many wounded; the actual number was never officially admitted.

Impact on the National Movement

• Destroyed the image of British rule as just and benevolent.
• Moderate leaders who believed in constitutional methods lost faith in British reforms.
• Gandhiji called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha but concluded that more organised, mass struggle was necessary.
• It united Indians in shock and anger, paving the way for the later Non-Cooperation Movement.

Thus, the Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh massacre exposed the repressive character of colonial rule and pushed the national movement in a more radical, mass-based direction.

Nature of the Khilafat Issue

• The Turkish Sultan, or Caliph, was considered the spiritual head of Muslims worldwide.
• After the First World War, harsh peace terms were imposed on Turkey.
• Indian Muslims feared that the Caliph’s powers would be taken away.

Formation of the Khilafat Movement

• Ali brothers – Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali – launched the Khilafat Movement in India.
• They demanded protection of the Caliph’s position and fair treatment of Turkey.
• A Khilafat Committee was formed, and a Khilafat Conference was held in 1919.

Gandhiji’s Strategy

• Gandhi saw in Khilafat an opportunity for Hindu–Muslim unity.
• He urged the Congress to support the Khilafat demands and join hands with Muslim leaders.
• He proposed a joint Non-Cooperation Movement against the British, linking Khilafat with Swaraj.

By integrating the Khilafat issue with the larger anti-colonial struggle, Gandhiji broadened the social base of the movement, making nationalism more inclusive and powerful in the early 1920s.

Main Features of the Programme

• Surrender of titles: People were asked to give up titles and honours awarded by the British.
• Boycott of institutions: Boycott of government schools, colleges, law courts and legislative councils.
• Boycott of foreign goods: Refusal to buy or use foreign cloth and other imported goods.
• Promotion of swadeshi: Use of khadi and hand-spun cloth; encouragement of village industries.

Methods and Nature of the Movement

• The movement was to be completely non-violent and disciplined.
• People were encouraged to join constructive programmes like spinning, basic education and removal of untouchability.
• National educational institutions such as Kashi Vidyapeeth, Jamia Millia Islamia and Gujarat Vidyapith were set up.

Thus, the Non-Cooperation Movement combined boycott with constructive work. It aimed to shake the foundations of British power by withdrawing Indian cooperation, while simultaneously building the moral and economic strength of the nation.

Urban Participation

• Students left government schools and colleges; teachers resigned their jobs.
• Lawyers like Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das gave up their legal practice.
• Foreign cloth shops were picketed and imports of foreign cloth declined sharply.

Rural and Tribal Participation

• Peasants in Awadh and other regions joined to protest high rents and oppressive landlords.
• Tribal peasants in the Gudem Hills, led by Alluri Sitarama Raju, took inspiration from the movement.
• Plantation workers in Assam left tea gardens hoping for freedom to return home.

New Political Consciousness

• People who had remained passive now began to see themselves as part of a common struggle.
• Gandhiji became a mass leader, and nationalism reached remote villages and plantations.

Therefore, the Non-Cooperation Movement marked a shift from elite politics to mass politics, drawing in large numbers from various regions and social groups into the national movement.

Initial Impact in Urban Areas

• Successful boycott of government schools and colleges.
• Resignation of many lawyers from government courts.
• Effective picketing of foreign cloth shops and reduction in imports.

Reasons for Slowdown

• Lack of alternatives: National schools and colleges could not accommodate all students, forcing many to return to government institutions.
• Economic needs: Lawyers and professionals found it difficult to sustain their families without regular income from practice.
• Everyday pressures: Long-term boycott required sacrifices that many middle-class families struggled to maintain.

As a result, the enthusiasm of the urban middle class gradually declined, and the centre of the movement shifted more towards rural and peasant areas, where people interpreted non-cooperation in their own ways.

Background of Peasant Grievances

• Peasants faced high rents, arbitrary taxes and various illegal cesses imposed by landlords (talukdars).
• They had to perform begar (unpaid labour) and faced eviction from land.

Organisation and Leadership

• Baba Ramchandra, a sanyasi, led the peasant movement in Awadh.
• Peasant sabhas were formed to mobilise villagers and present their grievances.

Main Demands and Forms of Protest

• Reduction of rents and abolition of begar.
• Cancellation of illegal cesses and social boycott of oppressive landlords.
• Nai-dhobi bandhs, where barbers and washermen refused their services to landlords.

Many Awadh peasants believed that Gandhiji and “Swaraj” would end their misery. Although the Congress focused more on anti-colonial issues, the peasant movement in Awadh added a strong rural dimension to the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Conditions of Plantation Workers

• They worked under harsh conditions in tea plantations, with low wages and poor living standards.
• The Inland Emigration Act restricted their movement; they were not free to leave the plantations.

Their Understanding of Non-Cooperation

• Workers heard about the Non-Cooperation Movement and Gandhiji’s call for Swaraj.
• They believed that Gandhi Raj would give them freedom to return to their villages.
• Thousands left plantations, hoping to go home.

Limitations of Participation

• Their actions were often unorganised and not coordinated with Congress leadership.
• Many were caught by police, beaten or forced back to plantations.
• Their main demand was freedom of movement rather than broad political reforms.

Thus, plantation workers gave the movement a distinctive character in Assam, but their expectations and experiences were different from those of urban activists and Congress leaders, showing the varied strands within nationalism.

Urban Middle Class

• Students, teachers and lawyers joined to protest against colonial rule and demand self-government.
• Their focus was political rights and representation in governance.

Peasants and Tribals

• Awadh peasants wanted rent reduction, abolition of begar and relief from landlords.
• Tribal peasants in Gudem Hills wanted restoration of forest rights and an end to forced labour.

Plantation Workers

• They sought freedom from restrictive laws and wished to return to their villages.

These examples show that while all groups acted under the broad banner of non-cooperation, their immediate aims were shaped by their specific social and economic conditions, reflecting differing strands within the national movement.

Alluri Sitarama Raju

• A charismatic leader of tribal peasants in the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh.
• Admired Gandhiji and talked of his ideals, but believed in using force to achieve freedom.

Tribal Grievances

• New forest laws restricted shifting cultivation and access to forests.
• Tribals were forced to work as labourers on road-building projects.

Their Interpretation of Non-Cooperation

• They took inspiration from the call for Swaraj but combined it with armed rebellion.
• They attacked police stations, tried to establish guerrilla warfare and sought to drive out the British.

Thus, while they used the language of non-cooperation and Swaraj, their methods were violent and differed from Gandhiji’s strict non-violence, showing how his ideas were reinterpreted in local contexts.

Causes and Incident

• In February 1922, at Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur (U.P.), a peaceful demonstration turned violent.
• Police opened fire on protesters who were picketing a liquor shop.
• In anger, the crowd set fire to the police station, killing several policemen.

Consequences

• The incident shocked Gandhiji, who believed firmly in non-violence.
• He felt that people had not yet developed the necessary discipline for a non-violent mass struggle.

Withdrawal of the Movement

• Gandhiji decided to suspend the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922.
• Many Congress leaders like Nehru and Subhas Bose were unhappy, feeling that a great opportunity was lost.

Gandhiji’s decision was based on moral principles rather than political advantage. He preferred to stop the movement rather than allow it to turn violent, showing his commitment to non-violence as an essential part of nationalism.

Objectives of Awadh Peasants

• Reduction of high rents and abolition of begar.
• Cancellation of illegal cesses and protection from eviction.
• Greater control over landlords and local power structures.

Objectives of Congress Leadership

• End of colonial rule and achievement of Swaraj.
• Protest against repressive laws like the Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
• Establishment of self-government and democratic rights.

Comparison

• Peasants focused on local agrarian issues and landlord–tenant relations.
• Congress leaders emphasised political freedom from the British.
• Congress was cautious about no-rent campaigns, fearing uncontrolled violence.

Thus, while both fought under the banner of non-cooperation, their priorities were different, indicating the multiple layers within the national movement.

Peasants

• In Awadh, peasants associated Swaraj with reduction of rent and abolition of begar.
• They sometimes attacked landlords and grain shops, seeing them as oppressors.

Tribals

• Tribal peasants wanted restoration of forest rights and an end to forced labour.
• Their methods, under leaders like Sitarama Raju, often involved violence.

Plantation Workers

• Saw the movement as an opportunity to break free from restrictive laws.
• Left plantations en masse to go home, even without organised planning.

These strands show that while all these groups were inspired by the idea of Swaraj, they interpreted it according to their immediate needs. The national movement thus contained many local struggles woven into a larger anti-colonial fabric.

Different Social Bases

• Urban middle class focused on political representation and constitutional reforms.
• Peasants and tribals concentrated on local economic and social grievances.

Differences in Methods

• Gandhiji insisted on non-violence, but tribal rebels sometimes adopted violent methods.
• Plantation workers acted spontaneously rather than in organised, disciplined ways.

Conflicting Aspirations

• Rich peasants wanted lower revenue, while Congress priorities were broader political issues.
• Dalit leaders demanded separate electorates, which Gandhiji opposed.

Hence, Indian nationalism was a complex combination of different interests and ideas. Although united against colonial rule, various groups did not always agree on what freedom should look like or how to achieve it.

Recognising Diversity

• It reminds us that India has always been socially and culturally diverse.
• Different groups have different histories and experiences of oppression.

Learning from Conflicts

• Conflicts among peasants, landlords, castes and communities during the movement show how interests can clash.
• Democracy must create mechanisms to negotiate and resolve such conflicts peacefully.

Inclusive Nationalism

• Understanding these strands encourages an inclusive idea of nationalism that respects all groups.
• It warns us against any narrow or exclusivist definition of the nation.

Therefore, studying differing strands within the national movement helps us appreciate the need for dialogue, compromise and respect for diversity in a democratic India.

Appointment of the Simon Commission

• Appointed by the British government in 1927.
• Tasked with reviewing the working of the Government of India Act, 1919, and suggesting constitutional reforms.

Reasons for Boycott

• The Commission had no Indian members; all seven members were British.
• This was seen as an insult to Indian self-respect and intelligence.
• Political parties across the spectrum felt that Indians should decide their own constitutional future.

Forms of Protest

• Hartals and demonstrations greeted the Commission wherever it went.
• The slogan “Simon Go Back” became famous.

The boycott of the Simon Commission united different political groups and strengthened the demand for full self-government, setting the stage for more radical demands like Purna Swaraj.

Key Decisions at Lahore

• Jawaharlal Nehru was elected president of the Congress.
• The Congress declared Purna Swaraj (complete independence) as its ultimate goal.
• It rejected the idea of dominion status within the British Empire.

Declaration of Independence Day

• 26 January 1930 was fixed as Independence Day.
• People were urged to take a pledge to struggle for freedom.

Significance

• Marked a clear shift towards complete break from British rule.
• Inspired people across the country to participate in processions and hoist the tricolour.
• Provided ideological basis for launching the Civil Disobedience Movement soon after.

Thus, the Lahore Session was a turning point that redefined the goal of the national movement and prepared the people for a more intense phase of struggle.

Everyday Importance of Salt

• Salt is a basic necessity of life for all people, regardless of class or caste.
• Tax on salt burdened everyone, especially the poor.

Colonial Oppression Through Salt Law

• The British government had a monopoly over salt production and sale.
• Indians were forbidden to freely manufacture or sell salt.

Symbolic Value for Movement

• By breaking the salt law, Gandhiji could challenge the colonial state on a simple, understandable issue.
• It allowed mass participation, as anyone could make or buy illegal salt.
• It showed that the fight against imperialism was connected to everyday life.

Using salt as a symbol made the Civil Disobedience Movement more inclusive and powerful, turning a common article into a weapon of political protest.

The Dandi March (12 March–6 April 1930)

• Gandhiji started from Sabarmati Ashram with 78 volunteers.
• They walked about 240 miles to the coastal village of Dandi in Gujarat.
• They passed through many villages, holding meetings and spreading the message of Swaraj and civil disobedience.

Breaking the Salt Law

• On 6 April 1930, Gandhiji reached Dandi and made salt by boiling sea water.
• This simple act symbolised defiance of the unjust salt law and British authority.

Beginning of Civil Disobedience

• People across India began breaking the salt law in their own localities.
• Other forms of civil disobedience followed, such as non-payment of taxes, boycott of foreign goods and picketing of liquor shops.

Thus, the Dandi March transformed a symbolic act of law-breaking into a nationwide Civil Disobedience Movement, bringing thousands into direct conflict with colonial laws in a non-violent manner.

Nature of Protest

• Non-Cooperation: Mainly withdrawal from British institutions—schools, courts, councils, foreign cloth.
• Civil Disobedience: Included active breaking of specific colonial laws, like the salt law.

Forms of Participation

• Civil Disobedience involved refusal to pay revenue and taxes in some areas.
• It encouraged people to defy laws openly while remaining non-violent.

Political Context

• Non-Cooperation followed the First World War, Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh.
• Civil Disobedience followed rejection of dominion status, Simon Commission and Purna Swaraj resolution.

Therefore, while both movements were based on non-violence and mass participation, Civil Disobedience was a more direct, confrontational challenge to colonial authority.

Rich Peasants

• Supported the movement strongly in the beginning.
• Expected reduction of land revenue and relief from economic burden.

Poor Peasants

• Wanted remission of rent and relief from moneylenders.
• Congress was cautious about supporting rent refusal, fearing radicalisation.

Business Classes

• Supported Congress to gain economic protection from foreign competition.
• Wanted policies favourable to Indian industries in an independent India.

Women

• Joined processions, picketing and salt-making, facing lathi charges and arrests.

Although these groups gathered under the flag of nationalism, their understanding of freedom differed according to their interests. For some, it meant political self-rule; for others, it meant economic relief or social justice, showing the varied meanings of nationalism within the movement.

Dalits (Depressed Classes)

• Led by Dr B.R. Ambedkar, they demanded separate electorates and safeguards for their rights.
• They felt that the Congress did not do enough to end untouchability and caste discrimination.
• Many feared that Swaraj might simply mean rule by upper-caste Hindus.

Muslims

• Hindu–Muslim unity weakened after the Khilafat–Non-Cooperation phase.
• Communal riots and differences over representation created mistrust.
• Some Muslim leaders felt Congress did not fully protect minority interests and feared majority domination in future.

These concerns reduced the enthusiasm of Dalits and Muslims for Congress-led movements, showing that national unity was incomplete and that social and communal questions remained unresolved.

Main Terms of the Pact

• The government agreed to release political prisoners not convicted of violence.
• It allowed peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops.
• It permitted people living near coasts to make salt for their consumption.
• Gandhiji agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• He also agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference in London.

Reasons for Dissatisfaction

• No major concession on complete independence or transfer of power.
• Repressive measures and policies of the government were not fully reversed.
• Some leaders felt that suspending a strong mass movement for limited gains was a mistake.

Thus, while the Gandhi–Irwin Pact recognised the Congress as an important political force, it did not satisfy all nationalists, many of whom wanted clearer steps towards Swaraj and stronger guarantees of rights.

Meaning of Collective Belonging

• It is the feeling that people share a common identity and belong to the same nation.
• It links individuals to a larger community with shared history and future.

Ways of Creating Collective Belonging

• National symbols: Images like Bharat Mata personified the nation as a mother.
• National songs: “Vande Mataram” and other patriotic songs united people emotionally.
• Folklore and legends: Collection of folk tales and songs highlighted a common cultural heritage.
• Reinterpretation of history: Writers emphasised ancient Indian achievements to build pride.

Through these cultural tools, people in different regions began to imagine themselves as part of one Indian nation, even though they never met most of their fellow citizens personally.

Collection of Folklore

• Nationalists began collecting folk tales and poems from different regions.
• They believed that these expressed the “real” spirit of the people more than elite culture.

Importance for Nationalism

• Folk traditions showed that India had a rich, ancient culture, contradicting colonial views of backwardness.
• They connected villagers’ local traditions to a wider national culture.
• They inspired pride and unity among people of diverse backgrounds.

By using folklore, nationalists tried to build a sense of shared cultural identity that went beyond regional and linguistic differences, strengthening the feeling of belonging to one Indian nation.

Contribution to Nationalism

• Abanindranath Tagore painted Bharat Mata as a calm, divine mother figure, symbolising the nation.
• The image encouraged people to think of the nation as something to love and serve.
• “Vande Mataram”, from Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s novel, became a powerful national song.
• It was sung in political meetings and processions, creating emotional unity.

Limitations

• Both the image and song drew heavily from Hindu symbols and traditions.
• Some Muslims felt excluded and uncomfortable, as the song referred to the nation in terms that seemed religious.
• This sometimes contributed to communal divisions rather than complete unity.

Thus, while Bharat Mata and “Vande Mataram” were powerful tools for spreading nationalism, they also showed the challenge of creating symbols that are inclusive of all communities in a diverse country like India.

Colonial View of History

• British historians often portrayed India’s past as a series of defeats and foreign invasions.
• They described Indians as backward and incapable of ruling themselves.

Nationalist Reinterpretation

• Indian writers highlighted the achievements of ancient India in science, art, literature and philosophy.
• They presented India as a land of great civilisation and learning.
• They argued that foreign rule was only a temporary interruption in a long, glorious history.

Impact on Nationalism

• Instilled pride and self-confidence among Indians.
• Encouraged people to believe that they were capable of governing themselves.
• Created a sense that independence was necessary to revive India’s past greatness.

In this way, reinterpretation of history became a powerful intellectual weapon against colonial ideology and an important support for nationalist feelings.

Political Processes

• Movements like Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience mobilised people against colonial laws and policies.
• Organisations such as the Congress provided leadership and programme.

Cultural Processes

• Creation of national symbols like the flag and Bharat Mata.
• Use of patriotic songs, slogans and festivals to spread nationalist ideas.
• Collection of folklore and reinterpretation of history to build cultural pride.

Interlinking of Both

• Cultural symbols gave emotional strength to political campaigns.
• Political struggles made cultural symbols widely known and accepted.

Therefore, Indian nationalism was not built only through speeches, laws and protests, but also through images, songs, stories and history that helped people imagine themselves as part of one nation and motivated them to participate in the freedom struggle.