CBSE Class 10 History – Chapter 4: The Age of Industrialization | NCERT-based Revision Notes

“The Age of Industrialization” explains how industries developed first in Europe and then in colonies like India, and how this process changed the lives of workers, artisans, traders and consumers. These NCERT-aligned revision notes present the chapter in simple language with clear headings so that Class 10 students can easily understand and write good answers in the CBSE Board examination.

1. Before the Industrial Revolution – Proto-Industrialisation in Europe

The chapter begins with a very important point: industrialisation did not begin suddenly with big factories. Before factories came up, there existed a long phase called proto-industrialisation. “Proto” means “early” or “first stage”.

1.1 The World of Merchants and Bankers

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European trade expanded enormously. Powerful merchants and bankers controlled trade between cities and the countryside, but they did not directly own factories yet. They wanted to increase the production of goods to export to the growing world market, especially to colonies.

• Town guilds in Europe controlled production within towns and restricted new people from entering trades.
• Merchants found it difficult to expand production in towns because guild rules were strict.
• So they turned to the countryside and began a new system of production.

1.2 The Putting-Out System / Domestic System

Merchants began what is often called the putting-out system or the domestic system:

• They supplied raw material like wool and cotton to rural households.
• Peasants and their families spun and wove textiles in their homes during their free time.
• The finished goods were then collected by the merchant, who paid wages and sold them in distant markets.

1.3 Why Rural Households Worked for Merchants

Rural households faced pressure on land. Population grew, but landholdings did not increase. Many peasants had small farms and needed extra income. Working for merchants allowed them to:

• Use their family labour (women and children could also spin and weave at home).
• Earn cash income in addition to what they produced on their fields.
• Become part of commercial networks without leaving their villages.

2. Hand Labour and Steam Power

When we think of the Industrial Revolution, we often imagine huge factories with machines and smoke. However, hand labour continued to be important for a very long time, even after machines were introduced.

2.1 The Coming of Machines

In Britain, the Industrial Revolution began in the late eighteenth century:

• Inventions like the spinning jenny and the power loom increased the speed of spinning and weaving.
• Steam engines provided a new source of power, replacing human and animal energy.
• Factories brought large numbers of workers and machines under one roof.

2.2 Why Hand Labour Did Not Disappear

Despite these changes, Britain and other countries still used a lot of hand labour:

• Variety of products: Many goods were made for a small, specialised market and needed careful finishing by hand.
• Fashion and taste: The upper classes preferred hand-crafted goods, considering them to be more refined and luxurious.
• Seasonal demand: Industries like book printing or shipbuilding had seasonal peaks; it was easier to hire casual workers than maintain machines throughout the year.
• Cheap labour: In many places, wages were low. For employers, using hand labour could be cheaper than investing in expensive machines.

2.3 Life of Workers in Early Industrial Britain

Industrialisation brought new opportunities but also hardships for workers:

• Workers faced low wages, long working hours and unsafe working conditions.
• Many workers came from the countryside and had to adjust to the strict discipline of factory life.
• There were periods of unemployment, especially when trade was slow or new machines replaced labour.

Workers often protested through strikes, machine-breaking and trade unions. Over time, some legal protections and labour laws were introduced, but conditions remained tough for many.

3. Industrialization in the Colonies – India Under British Rule

Industrialisation in colonies like India followed a very different path from that in Britain. Instead of independent growth, it was shaped by colonial interests.

3.1 India’s Pre-Colonial Crafts and Trade

Before British rule, India was known for its handloom textiles and other crafts:

• Indian cotton and silk were famous in European, African and Asian markets.
• Indian artisans produced fine muslins, chintz and other textiles using skilled hand labour.
• India had a strong craft and trade network linking towns, ports and countryside.

3.2 Impact of British Rule on Indian Textiles

With the growth of British factories, British industrialists wanted to protect their own industries and use India as a market and supplier:

• Britain imposed tariffs and duties on Indian textiles entering Britain, making them more expensive.
• At the same time, British machine-made textiles were allowed to enter India with very low duties.
• This policy encouraged imports from Britain and discouraged Indian exports.

As a result, the once-flourishing Indian handloom industry suffered. Many weavers lost their livelihood or were forced to work at low wages for European agencies.

3.3 The Rise of Indian Factories

Even under colonial restrictions, some modern industries did develop in India:

• First cotton textile mills were set up in Bombay (Mumbai) in the 1850s.
• Jute mills started in Bengal, close to the raw material growing areas.
• Coal mines were opened to support railways and industries.

Indian entrepreneurs like Dwarkanath Tagore and later the Tatas invested in shipping, coal and textile mills. However, they had to compete with powerful British trading houses and discriminatory policies.

4. Factories Come Up – Who Set Them Up and Who Worked There?

4.1 Who Were the Early Industrialists in India?

Early industrialisation in India involved different groups:

• British managing agencies dominated sectors like tea, coffee, indigo, jute and shipping.
• Indian merchants and bankers, who had earlier been involved in inland and foreign trade, started investing in modern industries.
• Many Indian traders had benefited from supplying goods to the British during wars and used these profits to build mills.

4.2 From Village to Factory – The Story of Workers

Most Indian factory workers were migrants from villages:

• They came due to poverty, debt and lack of land.
• Often, a worker already employed in a mill helped relatives and friends to get jobs – this created jobber networks.
• A jobber acted as a middleman: he found workers, controlled them inside the factory and sometimes even took bribes to give jobs.

4.3 Working and Living Conditions

Factory life was quite harsh:

• Workers stayed in crowded slums with poor sanitation.
• They worked long hours for low wages.
• There was no job security – during periods of low demand they could be easily dismissed.

Over time, workers started forming unions, going on strikes and demanding better conditions and higher wages.

5. The Peculiarities of Industrial Growth in India

Industrial growth in India did not follow a simple pattern. It had many peculiarities or special features:

5.1 Slow and Limited Growth Before the First World War

Before the First World War:

• Many Indian industries faced stiff competition from cheaper British imports.
• Indian capitalists were often not allowed to enter certain sectors which British agencies dominated.
• So growth was limited to a few sectors like cotton textiles and jute.

5.2 Wartime Boom and After

The First World War (1914–1918) created an unexpected opportunity:

• Imports from Britain reduced because of the war.
• Indian industries had to supply goods like cloth, jute bags, and other materials for the war effort.
• As a result, production in Indian factories increased rapidly, and new factories were started.

After the war, competition from British goods returned, but Indian mills had now gained some experience and strength. More Indian capitalists became confident and demanded protection for their industries.

5.3 Types of Industries and Products

Another peculiarity was that industrial growth did not happen equally in all sectors:

• Cotton and jute textiles expanded, especially for home and Asian markets.
• Some consumer goods industries like match, soap, oil and flour mills developed.
• Heavy industries (like steel) grew more slowly, often needing government support or big private houses.

6. Market for Goods – Advertisements and the Creation of Consumers

Industrial growth required not only factories and workers but also a market. Producers wanted to attract customers to buy their goods. This gave rise to advertisements and branding.

6.1 Building Brands and Using Labels

Manufacturers used labels on cloth bundles and other products:

• Labels carried the company name and logo to build brand identity.
• They often used images that suggested quality, strength or national pride.
• For example, foreign cloth sometimes showed images of Indian gods and goddesses to attract Indian buyers.

6.2 Calendars and Advertising

Another popular way of advertising was to distribute calendars and posters:

• Calendars showed mythological figures, scenes of modern life or pictures of the product itself.
• They were hung in homes, shops and offices throughout the year, constantly reminding people of the brand.
• Thus, advertisements entered the everyday lives of people and shaped their choices.

7. Revision Focus & Answer Writing Tips

7.1 Important Themes to Revise

• Proto-industrialisation – countryside production, role of merchants and peasant households.
• Co-existence of hand labour and machines – reasons why hand-made production remained important.
• Industrialisation in India under colonial rule – decline of traditional textiles, rise of mills.
• Workers’ lives – migration, jobbers, working and living conditions.
• Peculiarities of industrial growth – wartime boom, uneven growth by sector.
• Market for goods – labels, brands, calendars, creation of consumers.

7.2 How to Use These Notes in Exams

• Start answers with a brief introduction that mentions the time period and context.
• Use subheadings (e.g., “Causes”, “Impact”, “Features”) for long answers.
• Include key terms (proto-industrialisation, jobber, managing agency, tariff, etc.) correctly.
• Support points with examples (e.g., cotton mills of Bombay, jute mills of Bengal, labels and calendars).
• End with a short conclusion linking industrialisation with broader social and economic changes.

These Study Module and Revision Notes for Class 10 History – Chapter 4: The Age of Industrialization are based strictly on the NCERT textbook and are especially useful for CBSE Board examination preparation, school exams and quick last-minute revision.